Artist’s Statement

Alcoholism has always been something that has intrigued me. I’ve always had trouble thinking of alcoholism as a hereditary disease, when it appears to be such a self inflicted thing. I thought that by understanding more about the disease, it would make more sense to me how it is classified as a disease. Also, I am likely to carry a genetic predisposition to alcoholism, due to the pattern of alcoholism in my family, which gave me even more reason to use this for my topic. I wanted to learn about something that actually affected me, and because me or my siblings might end up struggling with alcoholism, researching it for my topic seemed like a good choice.
While doing my initial research on alcoholism, I started to find several articles about gene therapy for it. For me, gene therapy is really intriguing and this was the first time I heard about it the potential of using it to treat alcoholism. The hard thing about alcoholism is that it so far doesn’t have a direct treatment. To avoid the flu, you get a shot, but there’s obviously no such thing for alcoholism. If alcoholism runs in your family, all you can really do is do your best to stay away from alcohol and if you start excessively drinking, there isn’t really a treatment outside of therapy. As I read about gene therapy, actually giving the disease a direct cure, I knew instantly that I was not only to do my project on alcoholism, but instead, focus on gene therapy for alcoholism and what that would entail.
I had a few goals going into the project. One was to learn as much as possible about gene therapy for alcoholism. By the end of the project, I wanted to be an expert on the topic. I also hoped to simply gain the experience of an in depth research project where I got the experience of doing my own research and making a finished piece that could sum up all that I had learn; this finished piece, in the form of an educational video on gene therapy for alcoholism.
I hope that everyone who sees my film will be able to walk away with a good understanding of what gene therapy for alcoholism is. I hope that they will understand the overall process of a gene therapy and how it relates to alcoholism. I also want the information on the gene transfer preformed on the rats to really stun the viewer; for them to realize how close scientists are coming to the treatment. This isn’t some old issue in science that everything has already been discovered for; this is a current issue that could affect our futures. All I can ask is that the viewer will walk away with these similar thoughts in their mind, possibly sparking their own interest in gene therapy for alcoholism as well.
Last, I would like to talk about the category I chose. Film is something I’m really interested in, and I have had previous experience working with film. I also think that the idea of combining an art medium with science is very cool. Film is a great way to portray ideas because you get it all; the visual, the sound, the music. Gene therapy for alcoholism is a huge topic and with so much to say, making a film seemed like the most effective way to educate people on the subject.
From working on this project, I ended up learning a lot. I think everyone should take interest into gene therapy for alcoholism and hopefully my piece will do its job and allow for this to happen.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Effort Resource Paper

It is nearly impossible to make an effective film if you don’t put effort into using the resources around you. For my biotech expo project, an educational film on the possibility of genetic predispositions to alcoholism, I ended up using a lot of resources.
            For my research, I did my best to get my hands on as many scientific articles as possible about my topic. The Internet being the most convenient source, I spent hours researching gene therapy online. Unfortunately, most of articles on the topic weren’t available to the public, but with two different trips down to the UW library, I was able to get all I needed. Some online articles that were particularly helpful that I accessed at the UW library were “The American Journal of Human Genetics” by Xingguang Luo, Henry R. Kranzler, Lingjun Zuo, Shuang Wang, Nicholas J Schork, and Joel Gelerneter and “Toward understanding the genetics of alcohol drinking through transcriptome meta-analysis” by Megan K. Mulligan. Although the University of Washington’s health services library collection of books is small, I managed to find some that were very useful. These included “The Pathogenesis of Alcoholism- Biological Factors” by Gegamin Kissin and Henre Begleiter and “The Genetic Basis of Alcohol and Drug Actions” by Crabbe Jr., John C., and Adron Harris.
            Although the UW had the most sources on my topic on the molecular level, I got a lot of information from my Internet at home. Sources such as the “Gene Therapy Reduces Drinking in Rats with Genetic Predisposition to “Alcoholism”” from Laboratory News and “Genetic Strategies to Detect Genes Involved in Alcoholism and Alcohol- Related Traits” by Danielle M. Dick and Tatiana Foroud.
            To make my film, I used my family’s handy cam and edited it on iMovie, because I didn’t have access to any other equipment. Both the handy cam and iMovie worked great, and were a good choice because they were so easily accessible.
            I shot a lot of the footage for my film using animation, which I did simply by using stop animation. I included some pictures in my film of scientists and viruses, etc., all which I assessed over the web. My audio consisted of a voice over I had written and read myself.
            For an additional source I attempted to get an interview with a scientist who has insights on the issue, but due to awkward timing with vacations, bad weather and other breaks this never happened. I’m happy with how my piece turned out with out an interview though.
            My film opens up with some statistics about alcoholism in the United States, which I found on the Internet and included to create an intriguing beginning. I also used a quote by Peter Thanos, PhD, about the gene therapy his lab had conducted on the mice.
            I decided that I really wanted to include footage of mice, since I was talking about them so much, so I drove down to Pet-Co, and filmed the mice there.  For additional footage I used my parents as actors to simply sit there and sip their wine.
            As you can see, by accessing so many different resources, I was only then able to create my film. For the bulk of my research I ended up using the internet as well as a variety of resources at the UW library. For footage, I used my parents, the Internet, Pet-Co mice, animation and some footage I shot of alcohol. To make my film I used the best equipment I had access to, and ended up having no problem working with either iMovie or my camera.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Research Paper

Potential Gene Therapy for Alcoholism
           Gene therapy, the replacement of defective genes by transplanting normal genes into cells, is a new experimental and controversial study in science. It has already been shown to be a main treatment for monogenic diseases, which are diseases controlled by a single gene. Recent research has been done concerning the possibility of treating the common disease, alcoholism, with gene therapy. Alcoholism is a complicated disease that affects many. More than 18% of Americans experience alcohol abuse or dependence at some point in their lives and more than 100,000 people in the US alone die from excessive alcohol consumption each year, it being a direct or indirect cause. The possibility of a treatment for this complicated disease through gene therapy has intrigued many scientists. Alcoholism is estimated to be hereditary 50 to 60% of the time. By applying gene therapy, people with this genetic predisposition to become alcoholics could use gene therapy to replace the affected genes that carry the disease.
 
Statistics From:
"Office of Applied Studies." U.S. Department of Health & Human Sevices. 2004. SAMHSA. 9
           Feb 2007 <http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/nhsda.htm>.

           Most gene therapy that has been experimented with so far is for monogenic genes. These genes include skin disease; hemophilia, which is a medical condition where the blood’s ability to clot is drastically reduced resulting in severe bleeding; Phenylketonuria, which is the inability to metabolize phenylalanine (an amino acid) that can cause brain and nerve damage; and muscular dystrophy, a condition that weakens muscles. Unlike these diseases, alcoholism is a complicated disease that is caused by potentially many genes as well as environmental factors. To treat it genetically is much more complicated due to the long list of possible genes, chemicals, and other problems that may be causing the predisposition. These include Alcohol dehydrogenises, Aldehyde dehydrogenises, Gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptors, Mu-opioid receptors, Serotonin transporter, and Neuropoptide Y and neuropeptide Y receptors. Some of these will be covered more in depth later on.
            As you can see, there are many options for genes that a gene transfer can be applied to. The difficult part is identifying the genes that are most involved, but these genes can vary from case to case. With a disease such as hemophilia, the new gene is inserted in the blood stream. The genetic material of the gene allows so that FVII, which is a protein that allows for regular blood clotting, is produced and stored in blood platelets, hidden from view and attack where it is released when a blood vessel is damaged, therefore allowing for normal clotting. This process is much simpler because the disease is monogenic. The new gene containing the FVII corrects the original gene that lacked it, resulting in hemophilia. With alcoholism, although the same process would occur, there isn’t a single gene that is identified as causing the disease, so the transfer becomes much more complicated.
            This process described above is that of the actual gene transfer and is important to understand as a basis of the possibility of gene therapy for correcting alcoholism. Gene therapy is a process in which a “normal” gene is inserted into the genome to correct and replace the undesired gene.
The genome is the whole hereditary information of a living organism and is encoded in the DNA and the complete DNA sequence of one set of chromosomes. In most cells of the human body, the genetic information is contained in 46 microscopic structures in the nucleus called the chromosomes. The first 22 chromosomes are present in pairs and the 23rd pair consists of either 2 X chromosomes, if female, or and X and Y chromosome, if male. These chromosomes are inherited from the parents, with each parent providing one set of the 23 chromosomes. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is contained in these chromosomes. This is where these hereditary traits that gene therapy targets are found. So, to replace an undesired gene requires the new gene to be inserted into this genome.
The new gene must be carried in order for the gene to be substituted, which happens through a carrier molecule known as a vector. The vector is some type of virus. The virus is tested and proved harmless, so it acts solely as a vector, causing the subject no harm. Often, scientists genetically alter the viruses’ own DNA to prevent it from causing the subject harm and have been tested to be used for gene therapy. The virus is capable of enclosing something and delivering their genes to human cells, a unique trait that perfectly serves gene therapy. Although this capability usually is what causes sickness, such as HIV, TMV, or smallpox, scientists have been able to use this capability for delivering the genes they want to replace the defective genes with. The point is to remove the disease causing genes and replace them with beneficial ones.
These types of virus vectors include the retrovirus, adenoviruses, herpes simplex virus and adeno-associated viruses. However, other non-viral methods exist as well. The regular virus is the most common method. A virus attacks their host and introduces their genetic material into the host cell as part of their replication cycle. The viruses’ genetic material contains basic instructions on how to make more copies of these viruses, using the body’s normal production machinery to serve the needs of the virus. The host cell that contains the virus will carry out these instructions as well as produce more copies of the virus, so that more cells would be infected. Some types of viruses insert their genes into the subject’s genome. This process does not have to have a negative effect, as scientists discovered. By inserting good genes into the virus, the virus then carries the desired gene into the subject’s genome. There, the genetic instructions encoded in the virus allow the gene to replicate and replace the undesired gene. By the replication of the healthy genes in the genome, the healthy gene should dominate over the unhealthy one and take over and use the host’s production machinery, this time, having a positive effect.
The retrovirus is a class of viruses that are capable of creating double-stranded DNA copies of their RNA (a chemical similar to DNA form which proteins are made) genomes. These copies of its genome can be integrated into the chromosomes of host cells. An example is HIV. An adenovirus is a class of viruses with double-stranded DNA genomes. They cause respiratory, intestinal, and eye infections in humans and the common cold. The herpes simplex virus is a class of double-stranded DNA viruses that infect the neutrons. An example is herpes simplex virus type 1, which is a common human virus that causes cold sores. Last, the adeno-associated virus is a class of small, single stranded DNA viruses that can insert their genetic material at a specific site on chromosome 19.
            To summarize, scientists take a virus and alter its genetic material to remove the negative effects of the virus and add the desired gene. The virus is inserted into the genome, sometimes into the cell membrane where it then finds its way into the genome where it then multiplies the desired gene and then replaces the undesired gene. If the virus is an adeno virus, the vector, containing the modified DNA, is inserted into the cell. The cell membrane mistakes the virus for a protein, so it is let into the cell undetected. It then travels through until it reaches the genome, inside of the nuclear envelope, where the cells replicate, and creating more of the desired gene.
            This overview was of the basic gene transfer, which consists of the same methods no matter which gene is being altered. What causes the continuous research scientists have been putting forth onto the subject is identifying the specific gene to be altered. Monogenic diseases require identifying the single gene affected. Although the effect from patient to patient is the result of alcoholism, different combinations of their genes as well as environmental factors can lead one to become an alcoholic. Environmental factors are what can cause of contribute to alcoholism, but aren’t hereditary, but instead gained from the subject’s surroundings. Once the gene or genes affecting the specific patient are identified, this process can be used to alter the patient’s genes.
            Gene therapy for alcoholism is most effective when there is one main gene affecting the disease. Alcoholism is monogenic, because of the long list of genes as well as environmental factors that can create it. However, an individual only has to contain one of these infected genes to have a predisposition to alcoholism. When a subject has one gene that is the primary cause of their disease, treatment through gene therapy will be more effective.
            
The science of gene therapy also raises some important ethical issues that should be discussed. Gene therapy has provided technology to fix many disorders and diseases, but is not yet declared legal to perform on humans. To many, gene therapy  The fear around gene therapy is that if could ultimately be used to create the “perfect” human. Science isn’t limited to correcting only those genes that carry predispositions to diseases. Gene therapy can theoretically alter any gene, influencing things such as eye color, shape, size, color, disabilities, and diseases. Our genes are what make us unique and it is a common fear that gene therapy could take this away. Many don’t support the research of the therapy is debated, due to the time and money it takes up.
            On the other side of the argument, gene therapy could act as a cure for many diseases. Hereditary diseases that have been proven to be prevented and diseases such as alcoholism can be avoided. Although many people fear that even these therapeutic gene therapy treatments may change human nature, this is not true. It also holds potential to helping correct disabilities. Gene therapy, when used right can be a positive thing. However, the concern of all the ways it could be misused have caused much worry as to all the research that is being conducted for it.
 
            As it has been mentioned, many studies have been done to identify the genes that carry the disease alcoholism, which is often the most complicated part of gene therapy. It has been difficult to detect every involved gene, for this particular disease is not monogenic. The potential genes discovered so far have already been listed, but it is important to understand what these genes are and how they affect alcoholism.
            Alcohol dehydrogenase, or ADH is a group of dehydrogenase enzymes that occur in many organisms and assist the connection between alcohols and aldehydes (an organic compound formed by alcohol oxidation) or keytones (an organic compound made by oxidizing alcohols.) Oxidation when referring to alcohol is usually the conversion to these aldehydes and keytones, both which contain a carbonyl group- a carbon- oxygen double bond. They serve to break down alcohols, which could otherwise be toxic. It allows for the consumption of alcoholic beverages but also breakdown the alcohols naturally contained in foods or produced by bacteria. How high or low the level of alcohol dehydrogenase is effects ones level of response to alcohol. A mutation that scientist found in some people was a higher level of response and therefore a higher level of alcohol dehydrogenase, but actually decreasing ones risk of becoming an alcoholic. This means if the desired, but in fact mutated gene was to replace the subject’s gene containing their current level of alcohol dehydrogenase, they would be less prone to alcoholism.
            Aldehyde dehydrogenase, or ALDH are a group of enzymes that causes the oxidation of aldehyde, an organic compound formed by the oxidation of alcohols. ALDH oxidizes ethanol to acetaldehyde, which causes the “hangover.” High levels have about the same effect as alcohol dehydrogenase, for the two are believed to be closely linked. Those who have a high level suffer from the alcohol-flush reaction when they drink alcohol beverages, which have unpleasant symptoms that usually reduce alcohol consumption, reducing the risk of alcoholism. By adding this high level in, the subject with experience these unpleasant symptoms when they consume alcohol and are much more likely to refrain from alcohol abuse.
            Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) A receptors are neurotransmitter receptors located in the brain. It acts at restrained synapses in the brain. A synapses is a junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion (spreading out) of a neurotransmitter, a chemical substance released at the end of a nerve fiber. The receptors are believed to mediate a number of alcohol’s behavioral actions. The subunit composition of GABA receptors determines behavioral sensitivity to alcoholism, depending on what subunits are present. This means that certain subunits in the gene cause different behavioral actions such as loss of reflex in the patient, which are likely to decrease the risk of the disease. Gene therapy can be preformed in the brain to replace the current subunits with different ones, by transporting the genetic instructions that create the subunits into some of the brain’s cells.
 
ALDH and GABA Information:
Luo, Xingguang, Henry R. Kranzler, Lingjun Zuo, Shuang Wang, Nicholas J.
        Schork, Joel Gelernter. "Diplotype Trend Regression Analysis of the ADH
        Gene Cluster and the ALDH2 Gene: Multiple Significant Associations with
        Alcohol Dependance." The American Journal of Human Genetics 11 Jun
        2006 03 Dec @006 <http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?
        tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16685648>.

            These are three of the genes that have been identified to contribute to an individuals’ risk of becoming an alcoholic. There are more genes that have been discovered beyond these three. Alcoholism can result from a combination of contributing genes as well as environmental factors. These genes don’t directly carry the genetic trait of a tendency towards alcohol dependence, but control other behavioral genetic traits that predispose someone to become an alcoholic.
            To identify these genes involved in alcoholism, investigators search entire genetic material. This is done by testing for linkage between polymorphic markers, or the location of mutated genes that lead to the disease and the behavior of the alcoholic. Families with several affected members are studied to find whether specific alleles (one or two alternative forms of a gene that are a result of a mutation) are found at the same place on a chromosome. By using markers spaced evenly along all the chromosomes, scientists will analyze entire genomes. This therefore can identify vulnerable genes, even with no prior knowledge of the gene. This method has been used to identify genes of many different diseases, but scientists are still working on identifying all the genes relating to alcoholism.
            Although it is possible that not all genes will be discovered that effect alcoholism using linkage studies, many other methods exist. Another widely used method for testing for genetic predisposition to alcoholism is that of twin studies. Twins contain much of the same genes. In a study of an adult pair of Australian twins, the heritability of alcoholism was estimated to be 42-75% in men and 51-65% in women. The comparison of twin DNA has resulted in what is believed as accurate results to the predisposition. Twin studies allow scientists to separate hereditary factors from environmental factors. Scientist could compare the genes of twins and, depending on the outcome of which twins got the disease, study what possible genes cause this, or if these genes were the same and only one twin became addicted, what were the environmental factors instead.
            Recent studies have been conducted using rats as test patients to perform actual gene therapy on. Scientists in US Department of Energy’s Brookhaven National Laboratory in Longview, New York have used the technique of gene therapy to cut down drinking in rats with a genetic predisposition to alcoholism. What made this study more effective then past studies that could also be mentioned was that the rats already had the genetic predisposition to alcoholism instead of being trained to drink. The alcohol preferring rats preferred five times more grams of alcohol per kilogram of body weight per day when given a free choice between that and water while the other rats preferred the water. Both groups were then treated with a gene transfer to increase level of brain dopamine receptors, a chemical important for transmitting feelings of pleasure and reward that has been proven to play a role in alcohol dependence. The gene administered was for dopamine D2 receptors (a protein relevant to alcohol dependence.) The rats had low levels of dopamine D2 receptors, 20-25% lower levels then that of the non-preferring rats. This lead to reward deficiency syndrome, a common syndrome that predisposes some to addictive behavior. The harmless virus was inserted directly into the rats’ nucleus accumbens, which is the brains pleasure center. The virus then traveled into the brain cells genome where it used the genetic instructions to increase the making of D2 receptor proteins.
The results showed that the alcohol-preferring rats exhibited a 37% reduction in alcohol preference, cutting their total alcohol consumption in half. It went from 2.7 grams per kilogram to 1.3 grams per kilogram. The non-preferring rats also reduced their drinking, but not nearly as drastic. “These findings further support our hypothesis that high levels of D2 are casually associated with a reduction in alcohol drinking and may serve as a protective factor against alcoholism.” – Peter Thanos, as quoted by:

"Gene Therapy Reduces Drinking in Rats with Genetic Predisposition
to "Alcoholism"." Laboritory News. 05 May 2004. 6 Dec 2006       <http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/pr/PR_display.asp?prID=04-47>.

 Chronic drinking is associated with decreased dopamine levels because these chronic drinkers will use alcohol to increase immediate brain production of dopamine. My increasing these levels through gene therapy, drinkers lose there reason to drink.
A problem with most gene transfers is that they don’t last that long due to the immune system fighting of the multiplication of the gene, which the body sees as a virus. Viruses such as HIV remain a lifetime, so extending the life span of the gene transfer should one day be possible. With the rats, the rats’ consumption returned to pretreatment after twenty days and the greatest reduction in their drinking occurred after day two.
            As you can see, scientists are constantly making advancements towards using gene therapy to treat alcoholism. The study conducted at the Brookhaven National Laboratory was a huge step towards being able to apply the treatment to human patients.
In conclusion, gene therapy for alcoholism is an important issue in the science world that is constantly being developed. The many different genes and environmental factors that contribute to the disease have made this particular treatment challenging to reach.  Although gene therapy is not yet legal to use on humans, it is developed and studied by scientists everyday. The potential to have such a direct treatment for such a common and often deadly disease motivate scientists to continue to conduct research. In time, scientists hope to discover all involved gene that lead to the hereditary disease as well as determine them on a case-to-case basis. Who knows what the future has in store for gene therapy for alcoholism, but scientists’ hopes are high.
 
 
 
Bibliography

"Gene Therapy Reduces Drinking in Rats with Genetic Predisposition
to "Alcoholism"." Laboritory News. 05 May 2004. 6 Dec 2006       <http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/pr/PR_display.asp?prID=04-47>.
 
Article about research done at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Brookhaven National Laboratory. Scientists performed successful gene therapy on alcohol preferring rats.
 
 
"Gene Therapy - An Overview." Access Excellence. 1990. The National Health
           Museum. 2 Dec 2006 <http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BA/   
           Gene_Therapy_Overview.html>.
 
This article is an overview of the process of gene therapy. Also contains information about what make a disease treatable through gene therapy.
 
 
Mulligan, Megan K.. "Toward understanding the genetics of alcohol drinking
       through transcriptome meta-analysis." 17 Apr 2006 03 Dec 2006
     <http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&   
       pubmedid=16618939>.
 
Article about the use of rodents models to approach the molecular complexities that cause the predisposition to alcoholism.
 
 
"Gene Therapy." Human Genome Project Information. 6 Dec 2006
            <http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/medicine/
             genetherapy.shtml>.
 
Explores gene therapy for four different types of viruses (Retroviruses, Adenoviruses, Adeno-associated viruses, and Herpes simplex virus.) Talks about constricting factors of why it is not yet used for treatment of diseases.
 
 
 
 
 
 
"Gene Therapy." Wikipedia. 04 Dec 2006. 6 Dec 2006   
          <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Therapy>.
 
Contains background information about gene therapy as well as the basic process and an in depth analysis of different vectors.
 
 
Gaspar, H. Bobby. "Successful reconstitution of immunity in ADA-SCID by stem     
             cell gene therapy following cessation of PEG-ADA and use of mild preconditioning.." Mol Ther. 14 Oct 2006 04 Dec 2006 <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16905365&query_hl=10&itool=pubmed_docsum>.
 
This is a scientific article that contains case information on the treatment of monogenic disease and successful vectors.
 
 
Lobos González, Lorena, Carlos Muñoz and Brauning, Amalia and Sapag.
           "Ribozymes: towards gene therapy for alcoholism by silencing the mRNA
            for mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2)." ISBRA 2006
           World Congress on Alcohol Research (2006) 04 Dec 2006
            <http://www.isbra2006.com/abstract/296.html>.
 
An analysis of mammalian tissues, which is being applied to dissect molecular mechanisms that contribute to alcoholic liver disease.
 
 
Kissin, Gegamin, Henri Begleiter. The Pathogenesis of Alcoholism- Biological
 Factors. 7. New York: Plenum Press, 1983.
 
A print journal which addresses the genetic factors in alcoholism and identifying then from environmental factors. Thoroughly explores both linkage and twin studies.
 
 
Crabbe Jr., John C., Adron Harris. The Genetic Basis of Alcohol and Drug
 Actions. 1. New York: Plenum Press, 1991.
 
This is a scientific book that addresses behavioral studies of genetic differences in alcohol action and preference drinking in rodents.
 
 
Luo, Xingguang, Henry R. Kranzler, Lingjun Zuo, Shuang Wang, Nicholas J.
        Schork, Joel Gelernter. "Diplotype Trend Regression Analysis of the ADH
        Gene Cluster and the ALDH2 Gene: Multiple Significant Associations with
        Alcohol Dependance." The American Journal of Human Genetics 11 Jun
        2006 03 Dec @006 <http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?
        tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16685648>.
 
An in depth article focusing on the genes discovered so far to cause genetic predispositions to alcoholism. Also addresses linkage studies.
 
 
 
Dick, Danielle M., Tatiana Foroud. "Genetic Strategies to Detect Genes Involved
           in Alcoholism and Alcohol- Related Traits." Alcohol Research & Health
           2603 Nov 2002 172-180. 29 Nov 2006 <pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications
          /arh26-3/172-180.pdf ->.
 
Thoroughly explained article addressing three main methods of discovering genes that may cause a predisposition to alcoholism. These include linkage studies, twin studies, and rodent test models. It explains how each of the methods can help to discover involved genes.
 
"Office of Applied Studies." U.S. Department of Health & Human Sevices. 2004.
            SAMHSA. 9 Feb 2007 <http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/nhsda.htm>.
 
Statistics concerning alcoholism in the United States.  
 



on 2/16/07 4:18 PM, Jeanne Chowning at jchowning@nwabr.org wrote:

I have a quicktime movie but no written materials.
 

Jeanne Ting Chowning, MS
Education Director
Northwest Association for Biomedical Research
100 W Harrison, North Tower, Suite 430
Seattle, WA 98119
ph 206-957-3337
fx 206-282-2214
jchowning@nwabr.org
www.nwabr.org <http://www.nwabr.org>

---

From: Barbara Steffens [mailto:barbara.steffens@shorelineschools.org]
Sent: Friday, February 16, 2007 4:03 PM
To: Jeanne Chowning
Subject: Just tried to send again

I sent the file as part of email and it did not send. I also sent the movie file as an attachment by itself and it also would not send./

Viruses are such a pain!

Did the one’s Samantha sent herself come through> ??


Barb


-- Barbara Steffens
Science Teacher
Co-Class advisor 2007
Room F2, Shorecrest High School, 15343 25th Ave NE, Shoreline, WA 98155

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